The Best Apps and Websites for Learning Russian Language
Russian has over 258 million total speakers worldwide.[30] It is the most spoken Slavic language,[31] and the most spoken native language in Europe,[32] as well as the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia.[31] It is the world's seventh-most spoken language by number of native speakers, and the world's eighth-most spoken language by total number of speakers.[33] Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station,[34] as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.[35]
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Russian is an East Slavic language of the wider Indo-European family. It is a descendant of Old East Slavic, a language used in Kievan Rus', which was a loose conglomerate of East Slavic tribes from the late 9th to the mid-13th centuries. From the point of view of spoken language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn,[37] the other three languages in the East Slavic branch. In many places in eastern and southern Ukraine and throughout Belarus, these languages are spoken interchangeably, and in certain areas traditional bilingualism resulted in language mixtures such as Surzhyk in eastern Ukraine and Trasianka in Belarus. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although it vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is sometimes considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. Also, Russian has notable lexical similarities with Bulgarian due to a common Church Slavonic influence on both languages, but because of later interaction in the 19th and 20th centuries, Bulgarian grammar differs markedly from Russian.[38] In the 19th century (in Russia until 1917), the language was often called "Great Russian" to distinguish it from Belarusian, which was then called "White Russian", and Ukrainian, then called "Little Russian" in the Russian Empire.[citation needed]
The vocabulary (mainly abstract and literary words), principles of word formations, and, to some extent, inflections and literary style of Russian have been also influenced by Church Slavonic, a developed and partly Russified form of the South Slavic Old Church Slavonic language used by the Russian Orthodox Church. However, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with many different meanings.[citation needed] For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language.
Over the course of centuries, the vocabulary and literary style of Russian have also been influenced by Western and Central European languages such as Greek, Latin, Polish, Dutch, German, French, Italian, and English,[39] and to a lesser extent the languages to the south and the east: Uralic, Turkic,[40][41] Persian,[42][43] Arabic, and Hebrew.[44]
According to the Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California, Russian is classified as a level III language in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers, requiring approximately 1,100 hours of immersion instruction to achieve intermediate fluency.[45] It is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a "hard target" language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in U.S. world policy.[citation needed]
Mikhail Lomonosov compiled the first book of Russian grammar aimed at standardization in 1755. The Russian Academy's first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared in 1783. In the 18th and late 19th centuries, a period known as the "Golden Age" of Russian Literature, the grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation of the Russian language in a standardized literary form emerged.[citation needed]
After 1917, Marxist linguists had no interest in the multiplicity of peasant dialects and regarded their language as a relic of the rapidly disappearing past that was not worthy of scholarly attention. Nakhimovsky quotes the Soviet academicians A.M Ivanov and L.P Yakubinsky, writing in 1930:
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Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a popular choice for both Russian as a second language (RSL) and native speakers in Russia, and in many former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics.[53]
In Belarus, Russian is a second state language alongside Belarusian per the Constitution of Belarus.[54] 77% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 67% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[55]
In Estonia, Russian is spoken by 29.6% of the population according to a 2011 estimate from the World Factbook,[56] and is officially considered a foreign language.[54] School education in the Russian language is a very contentious point in Estonian politics and as of 2022 the parliament has approved to close up all Russian language schools and kindergartens by the school year. The transition to only Estonian language schools/kindergartens will start in the school year.[57]
In Latvia, Russian is officially considered a foreign language.[54] 55% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 26% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[55] On February 18, 2012, Latvia held a constitutional referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language.[58] According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%.[59] Starting in 2019, instruction in Russian will be gradually discontinued in private colleges and universities in Latvia, and in general instruction in Latvian public high schools.[60][61][needs update]
In Lithuania, Russian has no official or legal status, but the use of the language has some presence in certain areas. A large part of the population, especially the older generations, can speak Russian as a foreign language.[62] However, English has replaced Russian as lingua franca in Lithuania and around 80% of young people speak English as their first foreign language.[63] In contrast to the other two Baltic states, Lithuania has a relatively small Russian-speaking minority (5.0% as of 2008).[64]
In Moldova, Russian is considered to be the language of inter-ethnic communication under a Soviet-era law.[54] 50% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 19% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[55]
In Ukraine, Russian is a significant minority language. According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly, in 2004 there were 14,400,000 native speakers of Russian in the country, and 29 million active speakers.[66] 65% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 38% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[55] On September 5, 2017, Ukraine's Parliament passed a new education law which requires all schools to teach at least partially in Ukrainian, with provisions while allow indigenous languages and languages of national minorities to be used alongside the national language.[67] The law faced criticism from officials in Russia and Hungary.[68][69]
Significant Russian-speaking groups also exist in Western Europe. These have been fed by several waves of immigrants since the beginning of the 20th century, each with its own flavor of language. The United Kingdom, Germany, Finland, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Norway, and Austria have significant Russian-speaking communities.[citation needed]
In Armenia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.[54] 30% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 2% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[55]
In Azerbaijan, Russian has no official status, but is a lingua franca of the country.[54] 26% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 5% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[55]
In Georgia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.[54] Russian is the language of 9% of the population according to the World Factbook.[71] Ethnologue cites Russian as the country's de facto working language.[72]
In Kazakhstan, Russian is not a state language, but according to article 7 of the Constitution of Kazakhstan its usage enjoys equal status to that of the Kazakh language in state and local administration.[54] The 2009 census reported that 10,309,500 people, or 84.8% of the population aged 15 and above, could read and write well in Russian, and understand the spoken language.[73]
In Kyrgyzstan, Russian is a co-official language per article 5 of the Constitution of Kyrgyzstan.[54] The 2009 census states that 482,200 people speak Russian as a native language, or 8.99% of the population.[74] Additionally, 1,854,700 residents of Kyrgyzstan aged 15 and above fluently speak Russian as a second language, or 49.6% of the population in the age group.[74]
In Tajikistan, Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication under the Constitution of Tajikistan and is permitted in official documentation.[54] 28% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 7% used it as the main language with family, friends or at work.[55] The World Factbook notes that Russian is widely used in government and business.[56]
In Turkmenistan, Russian lost its status as the official lingua franca in 1996.[54] Among 12%[56] of the population who grew up in the Soviet era can speak Russian, other generations of citizens that do not have any knowledge of Russian. Primary and secondary education by Russian is almost non-existent.[75] Nevertheless, the Turkmen state press and newspaper Neytralny Turkmenistan regularly publish material version in Russian-language, and there are schools like Joint Turkmen-Russian Secondary School.[citation needed]